Dataflow: A Complement to Superscalar

@article{venkataramani-tcad06,
  title = {Hardware Compilation of Application-Specific Memory Access
     Interconnect},
  author = {Venkataramani, Girish and Bjerregaard, Tobias and Chelcea,
     Tiberiu and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  journal = {IEEE Transactions on Computer Aided Design of Integrated
     Circuits and Systems},
  year = {2006},
  volume = {25},
  number = {5},
  pages = {756--771},
  issn = {0278-0070},
  abstract = {{A major obstacle to successful high-level synthesis
     (HLS) of large-scale application-specified integrated circuit
     systems is the presence of memory accesses to a shared-memory
     subsystem. The latency to access memory is often not statically
     predictable, which creates problems for scheduling operations
     dependent on memory reads. More fundamental is that dependences
     between accesses may not be statically provable (e.g., if the
     specification language permits pointers), which introduces
     memory-consistency problems. Addressing these issues with static
     scheduling results in overly conservative circuits, and thus,
     most state-of-the-art HLS tools limit memory systems to those
     that have predictable latencies and limit programmers to
     specifications that forbid arbitrary memory-reference patterns. A
     new HLS framework for the synthesis and optimization of memory
     accesses (SOMA) is presented. SOMA enables specifications to
     include arbitrary memory references (e.g., pointers) and allows
     the memory system to incorporate features that might cause the
     latency of a memory access to vary dynamically. This results in
     raising the level of abstraction in the input specification,
     enabling faster design times. SOMA synthesizes a memory access
     network (MAN) architecture that facilitates dynamic scheduling
     and ordering of memory accesses. The paper describes a basic MAN
     construction technique that illustrates how dynamic ordering
     helps in efficiently maintaining memory consistency and how
     dynamic scheduling helps alleviate the variable-latency problem.
     Then, it is shown how static analysis of the access patterns can
     be used to optimize the MAN. One optimization changes the MAN
     interconnect topology to increase concurrence. A second
     optimization reduces the synchronization overhead necessary to
     maintain memory consistency. Postlayout experiments demonstrate
     that SOMA's application-specific MAN construction significantly
     improves power and performance for a range of benchmarks.}},
  keywords = {Asychronous Circuits, Spatial
     Computing,Phoenix,Network-on-a-chip},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/venkataramani-tcad06.pdf},
}

@inproceedings{mahim-asplos06,
  title = {Tartan: Evaluating Spatial Computation for Whole Program
     Execution},
  author = {Mishra, Mahim and Callahan, Timothy J and Chelcea, Tiberiu
     and Venkataramani, Girish and Budiu, Mihai and Goldstein, Seth
     Copen},
  booktitle = {12th ACM International Conference on Architecture
     Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems
     (ASPLOS)},
  year = {2006},
  pages = {163--174},
  address = {San Jose, CA},
  month = {Oct},
  abstract = {Spatial Computing (SC) has been shown to be an
     energy-efficient model for implementing program kernels. In this
     paper we explore the feasibility of using SC for more than small
     kernels. To this end, we evaluate the performance and energy
     efficiency of entire applications on Tartan, a general-purpose
     architecture which integrates a reconfigurable fabric (RF) with a
     superscalar core. Our compiler automatically partitions and
     compiles an application into an instruction stream for the core
     and a configuration for the RF. We use a detailed simulator to
     capture both timing and energy numbers for all parts of the
     system. \par Our results indicate that a hierarchical RF
     architecture, designed around a scalable interconnect, is
     instrumental in harnessing the benefits of spatial computation.
     The interconnect uses static configuration and routing at the
     lower levels and a packet-switched, dynamically-routed network at
     the top level. Tartan is most energy-efficient when almost all of
     the application is mapped to the RF, indicating the need for the
     RF to support most general-purpose programming constructs. Our
     initial investigation reveals that such a system can provide, on
     average, an order of magnitude improvement in energy-delay
     compared to an aggressive superscalar core on single-threaded
     workloads.},
  keywords = {Asychronous Circuits, Spatial Computing, Reconfigurable
     Computing,Phoenix, Tartan},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/mahim-asplos06.pdf},
}

@inproceedings{budiu-ispass05,
  author = {Budiu, Mihai and Artigas, Pedro V. and Goldstein, Seth
     Copen},
  title = {Dataflow: A Complement to Superscalar},
  booktitle = {IEEE International Symposium on Performance Analysis of
     Systems and Software (ISPASS)},
  month = {Mar},
  year = {2005},
  pages = {177--186},
  address = {Austin, TX},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/budiu-ispass05.pdf},
  abstract = {There has been a resurgence of interest in dataflow
     architectures, because of their potential for exploiting
     parallelism with low overhead. In this paper we analyze the
     performance of a class of static dataflow machines on integer
     media and control-intensive programs and we explain why a
     dataflow machine, even with unlimited resources, does not always
     outperform a superscalar processor on general-purpose codes,
     under the assumption that both machines take the same time to
     execute basic operations. We compare a program-specific dataflow
     machine with unlimited parallelism to a superscalar processor
     running the same program. While the dataflow machines provide
     very good performance on most data-parallel programs, we show
     that the dataflow machine cannot always take advantage of the
     available parallelism. Using the dynamic critical path we
     investigate the mechanisms used by superscalar processors to
     provide a performance advantage and their impact on a dataflow
     model.},
  confweb = {http://www.ispass.org/ispass2005},
  keywords = {Spatial Computing,Phoenix},
}

@inproceedings{budiu-odes05,
  title = {Inter-iteration Scalar Replacement in the Presence of
     Conditional Control Flow},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/budiu-odes05.pdf},
  booktitle = {3rd Workshop on Optimizations for DSO and Embedded
     Systems},
  author = {Budiu, Mihai and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  year = {2005},
  address = {San Jose, CA},
  month = {Mar},
  also = {CMU CS Technical Report, CMU-CS-04-103},
  keywords = {Phoenix,Compilers:Loop Optimizations,Compilers:Scalar
     Replacement},
}

@inproceedings{venkataramani-isss05,
  title = {SOMA: A Tool for Synthesizing and Optimizing Memory
     Accesses in ASICs},
  author = {Venkataramani, Girish and Bjerregaard, Tobias and Chelcea,
     Tiberiu and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  booktitle = {IEEE/ACM/IFIP International Conference on
     Hardware/Software Codesign and System Synthesis (CODES-ISSS)},
  year = {2005},
  isbn = {1-59593-161-9},
  pages = {231-236},
  address = {Jersey City, NJ, USA},
  month = {Sep},
  abstract = {Arbitrary memory dependencies and variable latency
     memory systems are major obstacles to the synthesis of
     large-scale ASIC systems in high-level synthesis. This paper
     presents SOMA, a synthesis framework for constructing Memory
     Access Network (MAN) architectures that inherently enforce memory
     consistency in the presence of dynamic memory access
     dependencies. A fundamental bottleneck in any such network is
     arbitrating between concurrent accesses to a shared memory
     resource. To alleviate this bottleneck, SOMA uses an
     application-specific concurrency analysis technique to predict
     the dynamic memory parallelism profile of the application. This
     is then used to customize the MAN architecture. Depending on the
     parallelism profile, the MAN may be optimized for latency,
     throughput or both. The optimized MAN is automatically
     synthesized into gate-level structural Verilog using a flexible
     library of network building blocks. SOMA has been successfully
     integrated into an automated C-to-hardware synthesis flow, which
     generates standard cell circuits from unrestricted ANSI-C
     programs. Post-layout experiments demonstrate that application
     specific MAN construction significantly improves power and
     performance.},
  keywords = {Asychronous Circuits, Spatial Computing,Phoenix,
     CAD,Compilers:Memory Optimizations},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/venkataramani-isss05.pdf},
}

@inproceedings{venkataramani-iwls05,
  title = {{HLS} Support for Unconstrained Memory Accesses},
  author = {Venkataramani, Girish and Chelcea, Tiberiu and Goldstein,
     Seth Copen},
  booktitle = {IEEE 14th International Workshop on Logic Synthesis
     (IWLS)},
  year = {2005},
  address = {Lake Arrowhead, CA},
  month = {Jun},
  abstract = {A major obstacle in high-level synthesis (HLS) of
     large-scale ASIC systems is memory access patterns. Typically,
     most state-of-the-art HLS tools impose constraints on the memory
     references in the source application, requiring them to exhibit
     predictable access patterns, and/or requiring dependencies
     between them to be statically determinable. This paper addresses
     the HLS problem when such constraints are relaxed. We present an
     analysis infrastructure that can be used within any HLS toolflow
     for synthesizing circuits from high-level abstractions, such as
     ANSI-C, where no assumptions can be made about memory access
     latencies, and where dependencies between memory references can
     only be disambiguated dynamically at runtime (pointer aliasing).
     We start by describing a generic framework to build a
     dependence-aware, fully distributed, although often conservative,
     memory-access network (MAN) for a given memory-dependence graph.
     Then, we propose a suite of optimizations to customize the MAN
     for the given specification. All these techniques guarantee
     memory coherency. Experimental results on Mediabench benchmarks,
     show that such an approach succeeds in maintaining high levels of
     parallelism, while ensuring memory coherency. The optimizations
     succeed in lowering the synchronization overhead by as much as
     4x.},
  keywords = {Asychronous Circuits, Spatial Computing,Phoenix},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/venkataramani-iwls05.pdf},
}

@incollection{mishra-nqmc04,
  title = {Defect Tolerance at the End of the Roadmap},
  booktitle = {Nano, Quantum and Molecular Computing: Implications to
     High Level Design and Validation},
  author = {Mishra, Mahim and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  year = {2004},
  editor = {Sandeep K. Shukla and R. Iris Bahar},
  publisher = {Kluwer Academic Publishers},
  isbn = {1-4020-80670},
  keywords = {Electronic Nanotechnology,Fault and Defect
     Tolerance,Reconfigurable Computing,Phoenix,molecular
     electronics},
}

@techreport{budiu-tr04,
  title = {Inter-Iteration Scalar Replacement in the Presence of
     Conditional Control-Flow},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/budiu-tr04.pdf},
  booktitle = {CMU CS Technical Report, CMU-CS-04-103},
  month = {Feb},
  year = {2004},
  author = {Budiu, Mihai and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  institution = {Carnegie Mellon University},
  see = {budiu-odes05},
  keywords = {Phoenix,Compilers:Loop Optimizations,Compilers:Scalar
     Replacement},
}

@inproceedings{koes-msp2004,
  author = {Koes, David Ryan and Budiu, Mihai and Venkataramani,
     Girish and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  title = {Programmer Specified Pointer Independence},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2004 workshop on Memory system
     performance (MSP)},
  month = {Jun},
  year = {2004},
  isbn = {1-58113-941-1},
  pages = {51--59},
  address = {Washington, D.C.},
  doi = {http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1065895.1065905},
  also = {Carnegie Mellon University TR CMU-CS-03-123},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/koes-msp2004.pdf},
  confweb = {http://cs.anu.edu.au/~Steve.Blackburn/msp2004},
  publisher = {ACM Press},
  abstract = {Good alias analysis is essential in order to achieve
     high performance on modern processors, yet precise
     interprocedural analysis does not scale well. We present a source
     code annotation, {\tt \#pragma independent}, which provides
     precise pointer aliasing information to the compiler, and
     describe a tool which highlights the most important and most
     likely correct locations at which a programmer should insert
     these annotations. Using this tool we perform a limit study on
     the effectiveness of pointer independence in improving program
     performance through improved compilation.},
  keywords = {Compilers:Alias Analysis,Phoenix},
}

@inproceedings{budiu-asplos04,
  author = {Budiu, Mihai and Venkataramani, Girish and Chelcea,
     Tiberiu and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  title = {Spatial Computation},
  booktitle = {International Conference on Architectural Support for
     Programming Languages and Operating Systems (ASPLOS)},
  pages = {14--26},
  month = {Oct},
  address = {Boston, MA},
  year = {2004},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/budiu-asplos04.pdf},
  abstract = {This paper describes a computer architecture that relies
     on the direct translation of high-level language programs into
     {\em Spatial Computation} (SC) hardware structures. SC program
     implementations are completely distributed, without any
     centralized control. SC circuits are optimized for {\em wires} at
     the expense of computation units. \par In this paper we
     investigate a particular implementation SC structures called ASH
     (Application-Specific Hardware). Under the assumption that
     computation is cheaper than communication, ASH replicates
     computation units to simplify interconnect, building a system
     which uses very simple, completely dedicated communication
     channels. As a consequence, communication on the datapath never
     requires arbitration; the only arbitration required is for
     accessing memory. ASH relies on very simple hardware primitives,
     using no associative structures, no multiported register files,
     no scheduling logic, no broadcast, and no clocks. As a
     consequence, ASH hardware is fast and extremely power efficient.
     \par In this work we demonstrate three features of ASH: (1) that
     such architectures can be built by automatic compilation of C
     programs, (2) that distributed computation is in some respects
     fundamentally different from monolithic superscalar processors
     and (3) that ASIC implementations of ASH use 3 orders of
     magnitude less energy compared to high-end superscalar
     processors, while being within a factor of two in performance.},
  keywords = {Asychronous Circuits, Spatial Computing,Phoenix},
}

@inproceedings{budiu-async04,
  title = {Translating ANSI C to Asynchronous Circuits},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/budiu-async04.pdf},
  booktitle = {10th IEEE International Symposium on Asynchronous
     Circuits and Systems (ASYNC '04)},
  author = {Budiu, Mihai and Venkataramani, Girish and Chelcea,
     Tiberiu and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  address = {Crete, Greece},
  year = {2004},
  month = {Apr},
  keywords = {Asychronous Circuits,CAD,Electronic Nanotechnology,Fault
     and Defect Tolerance,Phoenix,Reconfigurable Computing,Spatial
     Computing},
}

@inproceedings{venkataramani-iwls04,
  title = {{C} to Asynchronous Dataflow Circuits: An End-to-End
     Toolflow},
  author = {Venkataramani, Girish and Budiu, Mihai and Chelcea,
     Tiberiu and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  booktitle = {IEEE 13th International Workshop on Logic Synthesis
     (IWLS)},
  address = {Temecula, CA},
  month = {Jun},
  year = {2004},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/venkataramani-iwls04.pdf},
  abstract = {We present a complete toolflow that translates ANSI-C
     programs into asynchronous circuits. The toolflow is built around
     a compiler that converts C into a functional dataflow
     intermediate representation, exposing instruction-level, pipeline
     and memory parallelism. The compiler performs optimizations and
     converts the intermediate representation into pipelined
     asynchronous circuits, with no centralized controllers. In the
     resulting circuits, control is distributed, communication is
     achieved through local wires, and arbitration for datapath
     resources is unnecessary. Circuits automatically synthesized from
     Mediabench kernels exhibit substantially better energy-delay than
     either single-issue processors or aggressive superscalar cores.},
  keywords = {Asychronous Circuits,Spatial Computing,Phoenix,CAD},
}

@inproceedings{mishra-itsw03,
  author = {Mishra, Mahim and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  title = {Defect Tolerance After the Roadmap},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 10th International Test Synthesis
     Workshop (ITSW)},
  month = {Mar},
  year = {2003},
  address = {Santa Barbara, {CA}},
  keywords = {Spatial Computing, Reconfigurable Computing,Phoenix,
     Fault and Defect Tolerance},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/mishra-itsw03.pdf},
}

@inproceedings{mishra-itc03,
  author = {Mishra, Mahim and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  title = {Defect Tolerance at the End of the Roadmap},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the International Test Conference
     ({ITC}), 2003},
  month = {Sep},
  year = {2003},
  address = {Charlotte, {NC}},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/mishra-itc03.pdf},
  abstract = {Defect tolerance will become more important as feature
     sizes shrink closer to single digit nanometer dimensions. This is
     true whether the chips are manufactured using top-down methods
     (e.g., photolithography) or bottom-up methods (e.g., chemically
     assembled electronic nanotechnology, or CAEN). In this paper, we
     propose a defect tolerance methodology centered around
     reconfigurable devices, a scalable testing method, and dynamic
     place-and-route. Our methodology is particularly well suited for
     CAEN.},
  keywords = {Spatial Computing, Reconfigurable
     Computing,Phoenix,Fault and Defect Tolerance},
}

@inproceedings{budiu-cgo03,
  title = {Optimizing Memory Accesses For Spatial Computation},
  author = {Budiu, Mihai and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 1st International ACM/IEEE Symposium
     on Code Generation and Optimization (CGO 03)},
  year = {2003},
  address = {San Francisco, CA},
  month = {Mar},
  pages = {216-227},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/budiu-cgo03.pdf},
  keywords = {Spatial Computing, Reconfigurable
     Computing,Phoenix,Compilers:Memory Optimizations},
}

@inproceedings{budiu-fpl02,
  author = {Budiu, Mihai and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  title = {Compiling Application-Specific Hardware},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on
     Field Programmable Logic and Applications},
  year = {2002},
  address = {Montpellier (La Grande-Motte), France},
  month = {Sep},
  pages = {853--863},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/budiu-fpl02.pdf},
  abstract = {In this paper we describe ASH, an architectural
     framework for implementing Application-Specific Hardware. ASH is
     based on automatic hardware synthesis from high-level languages.
     The generated circuits use only localized computation structures;
     in consequence, we expect these circuits to be fast, to use
     little power and to scale well with program complexity. \par We
     present in detail CASH, a scalable compiler framework for ASH,
     which generates hardware from programs written in C. Our compiler
     exploits instruction level parallelism by using aggressive
     speculation and dynamic scheduling. Based on this compilation
     scheme, we evaluate the computational resources necessary for
     implementing complex integer-based programs, and we suggest
     architectural features that would support the ASH framework.},
  keywords = {Spatial Computing,Phoenix,Compilers:CASH},
}

@inproceedings{venkataramani-fpl02,
  title = {Factors Influencing the Performance of a CPU-RFU Hybrid
     Architecture},
  author = {Venkataramani, Girish and Sudhir, Suraj and Budiu, Mihai
     and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on
     Field Programmable Logic and Applications (FPL)},
  year = {2002},
  address = {Montpellier (La Grande-Motte), France},
  month = {Sep},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/venkataramani-fpl02.pdf},
  abstract = {Closely coupling a reconfigurable fabric with a
     conventional processor has been shown to successfully improve the
     system performance. However, today s superscalar pro-cessors are
     both complex and adept at extracting Instruction Level
     Parallelism (ILP), which introduces many complex issues to the
     design of a hybrid CPU-RFU system. This paper examines the design
     of a superscalar processor augmented with a closely-coupled
     recon-figurable fabric. It identifies architectural and compiler
     issues that affect the performance of the overall system.
     Previous efforts at combining a processor core with a
     reconfigurable fabric are examined in the light of these issues.
     We also present simulation results that emphasize the impact of
     these factors.},
  pages = {955-965},
  isbn = {3-540-44108-5},
  publisher = {Springer-Verlag},
  keywords = {Spatial Computing,Reconfigurable Computing,Phoenix},
}

@techreport{budiu-tr02,
  author = {Budiu, Mihai and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  title = {Pegasus: An Efficient Intermediate Representation},
  institution = {Carnegie Mellon University},
  year = {2002},
  number = {CMU-CS-02-107},
  month = {May},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/budiu-tr02.pdf},
  pages = {20},
  abstract = {We present Pegasus, a compact and expressive
     intermediate representation for imperative languages. The
     representation is suitable for target architectures supporting
     predicated execution and aggressive speculation. In Pegasus
     information about the global dataflow of the program is encoded
     in local structures, enabling compact and efficient algorithms
     for program optimizations. As a proof of the versatility of
     Pegasus, we have used it in a compiler translating C programs to
     hardware implementations.},
  keywords = {Spatial Computing, Reconfigurable Computing,Phoenix},
}

@inproceedings{mishra_goldstein_nsc1,
  author = {Mishra, Mahim and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  title = {Scalable Defect Tolerance for Molecular Electronics},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Non-Silicon
     Computing (NSC-1)},
  address = {{Cambridge, MA}},
  year = {2002},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/mishra_goldstein_nsc1.pdf},
  abstract = {Chemically assembled electronic nanotechnology (CAEN) is
     a promising alternative to CMOS-based computing. However,
     CAEN-based circuits are expected to have huge defect densities.
     To solve this problem CAEN can be used to build reconfigurable
     fabrics which, assuming the defects can be found, are inherently
     defect tolerant. In this paper, we propose a scalable testing
     methodology for finding defects in reconfigurable devices.},
  keywords = {Reconfigurable Computing, Phoenix,Fault and Defect
     Tolerance},
}

@inproceedings{goldstein-isca01,
  author = {Goldstein, Seth Copen and Budiu, Mihai},
  title = {{NanoFabrics}: Spatial Computing Using Molecular
     Electronics},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 28th International Symposium on
     Computer Architecture (ISCA)},
  month = {Jul},
  address = {{G\"{o}teborg, Sweden}},
  year = {2001},
  pages = {178--189},
  abstract = {The continuation of the remarkable exponential increases
     in processing power over the recent past faces imminent
     challenges due in part to the physics of deep-submicron CMOS
     devices and the costs of both chip masks and future fabrication
     plants. A promising solution to these problems is offered by an
     alternative to CMOS-based computing, chemically assembled
     electronic nanotechnology (CAEN). In this paper we outline how
     CAEN based computing can become a reality. We briefly describe
     recent work in CAEN and how CAEN will affect computer
     architecture. We show how the inherently reconfigurable natures
     of CAEN devices can be exploited to provide high-density chips
     with defect tolerance which will significantly reduce the cost of
     manufacturing. After developing the basic building blocks of a
     CAEN based computing devices we present some preliminary results
     which indicate that CAEN based computing devices can meet or
     exceed the performance of CMOS based devices.},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/goldstein-isca01.pdf},
  keywords = {Spatial Computing, Reconfigurable Computing,Phoenix,
     Electronic Nanotechnology},
}

@inproceedings{budiu-europar00,
  title = {{BitValue} Inference: Detecting and Exploiting Narrow
     Bitwidth Computations},
  author = {Budiu, Mihai and Sakr, Majd and Walker, Kevin and
     Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2000 Europar Conference},
  year = {2000},
  volume = {1900},
  pages = {969--979},
  month = {Aug},
  issn = {0302-9743},
  series = {Lecture Notes in Computer Science},
  publisher = {Springer Verlag},
  address = {Munich, Germany},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/budiu-europar00.pdf},
  also = {CMU CS Technical Report, CMU-CS-00-141, October 2000.},
  abstract = {We present a compiler algorithm called BitValue, which
     can discover both unused and constant bits in dusty-deck C
     programs. BitValue uses forward and backward dataflow analyses,
     generalizing constant-folding and dead-code detection at the
     bit-level. This algorithm enables compiler optimizations which
     target special processor architectures for computing on
     non-standard bitwidths. Using this algorithm we show that up to
     31\% of the computed bytes are thrown away (for programs from
     SpecINT95 and Mediabench). A compiler for reconfigurable hardware
     uses this algorithm to achieve substantial reductions (up to
     20-fold) in the size of the synthesized circuits.},
  keywords = {Spatial Computing,Reconfigurable
     Computing,Phoenix,PipeRench,CAD},
}

@article{venkataramani-tcad06,
  title = {Hardware Compilation of Application-Specific Memory Access
     Interconnect},
  author = {Venkataramani, Girish and Bjerregaard, Tobias and Chelcea,
     Tiberiu and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  journal = {IEEE Transactions on Computer Aided Design of Integrated
     Circuits and Systems},
  year = {2006},
  volume = {25},
  number = {5},
  pages = {756--771},
  issn = {0278-0070},
  abstract = {{A major obstacle to successful high-level synthesis
     (HLS) of large-scale application-specified integrated circuit
     systems is the presence of memory accesses to a shared-memory
     subsystem. The latency to access memory is often not statically
     predictable, which creates problems for scheduling operations
     dependent on memory reads. More fundamental is that dependences
     between accesses may not be statically provable (e.g., if the
     specification language permits pointers), which introduces
     memory-consistency problems. Addressing these issues with static
     scheduling results in overly conservative circuits, and thus,
     most state-of-the-art HLS tools limit memory systems to those
     that have predictable latencies and limit programmers to
     specifications that forbid arbitrary memory-reference patterns. A
     new HLS framework for the synthesis and optimization of memory
     accesses (SOMA) is presented. SOMA enables specifications to
     include arbitrary memory references (e.g., pointers) and allows
     the memory system to incorporate features that might cause the
     latency of a memory access to vary dynamically. This results in
     raising the level of abstraction in the input specification,
     enabling faster design times. SOMA synthesizes a memory access
     network (MAN) architecture that facilitates dynamic scheduling
     and ordering of memory accesses. The paper describes a basic MAN
     construction technique that illustrates how dynamic ordering
     helps in efficiently maintaining memory consistency and how
     dynamic scheduling helps alleviate the variable-latency problem.
     Then, it is shown how static analysis of the access patterns can
     be used to optimize the MAN. One optimization changes the MAN
     interconnect topology to increase concurrence. A second
     optimization reduces the synchronization overhead necessary to
     maintain memory consistency. Postlayout experiments demonstrate
     that SOMA's application-specific MAN construction significantly
     improves power and performance for a range of benchmarks.}},
  keywords = {Asychronous Circuits, Spatial
     Computing,Phoenix,Network-on-a-chip},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/venkataramani-tcad06.pdf},
}

@inproceedings{venkataramani-iccad06,
  title = {Leveraging Protocol Knowledge in Slack Matching},
  author = {Venkataramani, Girish and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  booktitle = {IEEE/ACM International Conference on Computer-Aided
     Design (ICCAD)},
  year = {2006},
  address = {San Jose, CA},
  month = {Nov},
  abstract = {{Stalls, due to mis-matches in communication rates, are
     a major performance obstacle in pipelined circuits. If the rate
     of data production is faster than the rate of consumption, the
     resulting design performs slower than when the communication rate
     is matched. This can be remedied by inserting pipeline buffers
     (to temporarily hold data), allowing the producer to proceed if
     the consumer is not ready to accept data. The problem of deciding
     which channels need these buffers (and how many) for an arbitrary
     communication profile is called the slack matching problem; the
     optimal solution to this problem has been shown to be
     NP-complete. \par In this paper, we present a heuristic that uses
     knowledge of the communication protocol to explicitly model these
     bottlenecks, and an iterative algorithm to progressively remove
     these bottlenecks by inserting buffers. We apply this algorithm
     to asynchronous circuits, and show that it naturally handles
     large designs with arbitrarily cyclic and acyclic topologies,
     which exhibit various types of control choice. The heuristic is
     efficient, achieving linear time complexity in practice, and
     produces solutions that (a) achieve up to 60\% performance
     speedup on large media processing kernels, and (b) can either be
     verified to be optimal, or the approximation margin can be
     bounded. }},
  keywords = {Asychronous Circuits, Spatial Computing, CAD, Global
     Critical Path},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/venkataramani-iccad06.pdf},
}

@techreport{venkataramani-tr06,
  author = {Venkataramani, Girish and Chelcea, Tiberiu and Budiu,
     Mihai and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  title = {Modeling the Global Critical Path in Concurrent Systems},
  institution = {Carnegie Mellon University},
  year = {2006},
  number = {CMU-CS-06-144},
  month = {Aug},
  abstract = {We show how the global critical path can be used as a
     practical tool for understanding, optimizing and summarizing the
     behavior of highly concurrent self-timed circuits. Traditionally,
     critical path analysis has been applied to DAGs, and thus was
     constrained to combinatorial sub-circuits. We formally define the
     global critical path (GCP) and show how it can be constructed
     using only local information that is automatically derived
     directly from the circuit. We introduce a form of Production
     Rules, which can accurately determine the GCP for a given input
     vector, even for modules which exhibit choice and early
     termination. \par The GCP provides valuable insight into the
     control behavior of the application, which help in formulating
     new optimizations and re-formulating existing ones to use the GCP
     knowledge. We have constructed a fully automated framework for
     GCP detection and analysis, and have incorporated this framework
     into a high-level synthesis tool-chain. We demonstrate the
     effectiveness of the GCP framework by re-formulating two
     traditional CAD optimizations to use the GCP, yielding efficient
     algorithms which improve circuit power (by up to 9\%) and
     performance (by up to 60\%) in our experiments.},
  keywords = {Asychronous Circuits, Spatial Computing,CAD, Global
     Critical Path},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/venkataramani-tr06.pdf},
}

@inproceedings{mahim-asplos06,
  title = {Tartan: Evaluating Spatial Computation for Whole Program
     Execution},
  author = {Mishra, Mahim and Callahan, Timothy J and Chelcea, Tiberiu
     and Venkataramani, Girish and Budiu, Mihai and Goldstein, Seth
     Copen},
  booktitle = {12th ACM International Conference on Architecture
     Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems
     (ASPLOS)},
  year = {2006},
  pages = {163--174},
  address = {San Jose, CA},
  month = {Oct},
  abstract = {Spatial Computing (SC) has been shown to be an
     energy-efficient model for implementing program kernels. In this
     paper we explore the feasibility of using SC for more than small
     kernels. To this end, we evaluate the performance and energy
     efficiency of entire applications on Tartan, a general-purpose
     architecture which integrates a reconfigurable fabric (RF) with a
     superscalar core. Our compiler automatically partitions and
     compiles an application into an instruction stream for the core
     and a configuration for the RF. We use a detailed simulator to
     capture both timing and energy numbers for all parts of the
     system. \par Our results indicate that a hierarchical RF
     architecture, designed around a scalable interconnect, is
     instrumental in harnessing the benefits of spatial computation.
     The interconnect uses static configuration and routing at the
     lower levels and a packet-switched, dynamically-routed network at
     the top level. Tartan is most energy-efficient when almost all of
     the application is mapped to the RF, indicating the need for the
     RF to support most general-purpose programming constructs. Our
     initial investigation reveals that such a system can provide, on
     average, an order of magnitude improvement in energy-delay
     compared to an aggressive superscalar core on single-threaded
     workloads.},
  keywords = {Asychronous Circuits, Spatial Computing, Reconfigurable
     Computing,Phoenix, Tartan},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/mahim-asplos06.pdf},
}

@inproceedings{budiu-ispass05,
  author = {Budiu, Mihai and Artigas, Pedro V. and Goldstein, Seth
     Copen},
  title = {Dataflow: A Complement to Superscalar},
  booktitle = {IEEE International Symposium on Performance Analysis of
     Systems and Software (ISPASS)},
  month = {Mar},
  year = {2005},
  pages = {177--186},
  address = {Austin, TX},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/budiu-ispass05.pdf},
  abstract = {There has been a resurgence of interest in dataflow
     architectures, because of their potential for exploiting
     parallelism with low overhead. In this paper we analyze the
     performance of a class of static dataflow machines on integer
     media and control-intensive programs and we explain why a
     dataflow machine, even with unlimited resources, does not always
     outperform a superscalar processor on general-purpose codes,
     under the assumption that both machines take the same time to
     execute basic operations. We compare a program-specific dataflow
     machine with unlimited parallelism to a superscalar processor
     running the same program. While the dataflow machines provide
     very good performance on most data-parallel programs, we show
     that the dataflow machine cannot always take advantage of the
     available parallelism. Using the dynamic critical path we
     investigate the mechanisms used by superscalar processors to
     provide a performance advantage and their impact on a dataflow
     model.},
  confweb = {http://www.ispass.org/ispass2005},
  keywords = {Spatial Computing,Phoenix},
}

@inproceedings{venkataramani-isss05,
  title = {SOMA: A Tool for Synthesizing and Optimizing Memory
     Accesses in ASICs},
  author = {Venkataramani, Girish and Bjerregaard, Tobias and Chelcea,
     Tiberiu and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  booktitle = {IEEE/ACM/IFIP International Conference on
     Hardware/Software Codesign and System Synthesis (CODES-ISSS)},
  year = {2005},
  isbn = {1-59593-161-9},
  pages = {231-236},
  address = {Jersey City, NJ, USA},
  month = {Sep},
  abstract = {Arbitrary memory dependencies and variable latency
     memory systems are major obstacles to the synthesis of
     large-scale ASIC systems in high-level synthesis. This paper
     presents SOMA, a synthesis framework for constructing Memory
     Access Network (MAN) architectures that inherently enforce memory
     consistency in the presence of dynamic memory access
     dependencies. A fundamental bottleneck in any such network is
     arbitrating between concurrent accesses to a shared memory
     resource. To alleviate this bottleneck, SOMA uses an
     application-specific concurrency analysis technique to predict
     the dynamic memory parallelism profile of the application. This
     is then used to customize the MAN architecture. Depending on the
     parallelism profile, the MAN may be optimized for latency,
     throughput or both. The optimized MAN is automatically
     synthesized into gate-level structural Verilog using a flexible
     library of network building blocks. SOMA has been successfully
     integrated into an automated C-to-hardware synthesis flow, which
     generates standard cell circuits from unrestricted ANSI-C
     programs. Post-layout experiments demonstrate that application
     specific MAN construction significantly improves power and
     performance.},
  keywords = {Asychronous Circuits, Spatial Computing,Phoenix,
     CAD,Compilers:Memory Optimizations},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/venkataramani-isss05.pdf},
}

@inproceedings{venkataramani-iwls05,
  title = {{HLS} Support for Unconstrained Memory Accesses},
  author = {Venkataramani, Girish and Chelcea, Tiberiu and Goldstein,
     Seth Copen},
  booktitle = {IEEE 14th International Workshop on Logic Synthesis
     (IWLS)},
  year = {2005},
  address = {Lake Arrowhead, CA},
  month = {Jun},
  abstract = {A major obstacle in high-level synthesis (HLS) of
     large-scale ASIC systems is memory access patterns. Typically,
     most state-of-the-art HLS tools impose constraints on the memory
     references in the source application, requiring them to exhibit
     predictable access patterns, and/or requiring dependencies
     between them to be statically determinable. This paper addresses
     the HLS problem when such constraints are relaxed. We present an
     analysis infrastructure that can be used within any HLS toolflow
     for synthesizing circuits from high-level abstractions, such as
     ANSI-C, where no assumptions can be made about memory access
     latencies, and where dependencies between memory references can
     only be disambiguated dynamically at runtime (pointer aliasing).
     We start by describing a generic framework to build a
     dependence-aware, fully distributed, although often conservative,
     memory-access network (MAN) for a given memory-dependence graph.
     Then, we propose a suite of optimizations to customize the MAN
     for the given specification. All these techniques guarantee
     memory coherency. Experimental results on Mediabench benchmarks,
     show that such an approach succeeds in maintaining high levels of
     parallelism, while ensuring memory coherency. The optimizations
     succeed in lowering the synchronization overhead by as much as
     4x.},
  keywords = {Asychronous Circuits, Spatial Computing,Phoenix},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/venkataramani-iwls05.pdf},
}

@inproceedings{budiu-asplos04,
  author = {Budiu, Mihai and Venkataramani, Girish and Chelcea,
     Tiberiu and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  title = {Spatial Computation},
  booktitle = {International Conference on Architectural Support for
     Programming Languages and Operating Systems (ASPLOS)},
  pages = {14--26},
  month = {Oct},
  address = {Boston, MA},
  year = {2004},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/budiu-asplos04.pdf},
  abstract = {This paper describes a computer architecture that relies
     on the direct translation of high-level language programs into
     {\em Spatial Computation} (SC) hardware structures. SC program
     implementations are completely distributed, without any
     centralized control. SC circuits are optimized for {\em wires} at
     the expense of computation units. \par In this paper we
     investigate a particular implementation SC structures called ASH
     (Application-Specific Hardware). Under the assumption that
     computation is cheaper than communication, ASH replicates
     computation units to simplify interconnect, building a system
     which uses very simple, completely dedicated communication
     channels. As a consequence, communication on the datapath never
     requires arbitration; the only arbitration required is for
     accessing memory. ASH relies on very simple hardware primitives,
     using no associative structures, no multiported register files,
     no scheduling logic, no broadcast, and no clocks. As a
     consequence, ASH hardware is fast and extremely power efficient.
     \par In this work we demonstrate three features of ASH: (1) that
     such architectures can be built by automatic compilation of C
     programs, (2) that distributed computation is in some respects
     fundamentally different from monolithic superscalar processors
     and (3) that ASIC implementations of ASH use 3 orders of
     magnitude less energy compared to high-end superscalar
     processors, while being within a factor of two in performance.},
  keywords = {Asychronous Circuits, Spatial Computing,Phoenix},
}

@inproceedings{budiu-async04,
  title = {Translating ANSI C to Asynchronous Circuits},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/budiu-async04.pdf},
  booktitle = {10th IEEE International Symposium on Asynchronous
     Circuits and Systems (ASYNC '04)},
  author = {Budiu, Mihai and Venkataramani, Girish and Chelcea,
     Tiberiu and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  address = {Crete, Greece},
  year = {2004},
  month = {Apr},
  keywords = {Asychronous Circuits,CAD,Electronic Nanotechnology,Fault
     and Defect Tolerance,Phoenix,Reconfigurable Computing,Spatial
     Computing},
}

@inproceedings{venkataramani-iwls04,
  title = {{C} to Asynchronous Dataflow Circuits: An End-to-End
     Toolflow},
  author = {Venkataramani, Girish and Budiu, Mihai and Chelcea,
     Tiberiu and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  booktitle = {IEEE 13th International Workshop on Logic Synthesis
     (IWLS)},
  address = {Temecula, CA},
  month = {Jun},
  year = {2004},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/venkataramani-iwls04.pdf},
  abstract = {We present a complete toolflow that translates ANSI-C
     programs into asynchronous circuits. The toolflow is built around
     a compiler that converts C into a functional dataflow
     intermediate representation, exposing instruction-level, pipeline
     and memory parallelism. The compiler performs optimizations and
     converts the intermediate representation into pipelined
     asynchronous circuits, with no centralized controllers. In the
     resulting circuits, control is distributed, communication is
     achieved through local wires, and arbitration for datapath
     resources is unnecessary. Circuits automatically synthesized from
     Mediabench kernels exhibit substantially better energy-delay than
     either single-issue processors or aggressive superscalar cores.},
  keywords = {Asychronous Circuits,Spatial Computing,Phoenix,CAD},
}

@inproceedings{mishra-itsw03,
  author = {Mishra, Mahim and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  title = {Defect Tolerance After the Roadmap},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 10th International Test Synthesis
     Workshop (ITSW)},
  month = {Mar},
  year = {2003},
  address = {Santa Barbara, {CA}},
  keywords = {Spatial Computing, Reconfigurable Computing,Phoenix,
     Fault and Defect Tolerance},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/mishra-itsw03.pdf},
}

@inproceedings{mishra-itc03,
  author = {Mishra, Mahim and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  title = {Defect Tolerance at the End of the Roadmap},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the International Test Conference
     ({ITC}), 2003},
  month = {Sep},
  year = {2003},
  address = {Charlotte, {NC}},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/mishra-itc03.pdf},
  abstract = {Defect tolerance will become more important as feature
     sizes shrink closer to single digit nanometer dimensions. This is
     true whether the chips are manufactured using top-down methods
     (e.g., photolithography) or bottom-up methods (e.g., chemically
     assembled electronic nanotechnology, or CAEN). In this paper, we
     propose a defect tolerance methodology centered around
     reconfigurable devices, a scalable testing method, and dynamic
     place-and-route. Our methodology is particularly well suited for
     CAEN.},
  keywords = {Spatial Computing, Reconfigurable
     Computing,Phoenix,Fault and Defect Tolerance},
}

@incollection{goldstein-mn03,
  title = {Molecules, Gates, Circuits, Computer},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/goldstein-mn03.pdf},
  booktitle = {Molecular Nanoelectronics},
  author = {Goldstein, Seth Copen and Budiu, Mihai},
  year = {2003},
  editor = {Mark A. Reed and Takhee Lee},
  publisher = {American Scientific Publishers},
  address = {Stevenson Ranch, CA},
  month = {Jan},
  isbn = {1-588883-006-3},
  keywords = {Asychronous Circuits,CAD,Electronic Nanotechnology,Fault
     and Defect Tolerance,Reconfigurable Computing,Spatial
     Computing,electronic nanotechnology,molecular electronics},
}

@inproceedings{budiu-cgo03,
  title = {Optimizing Memory Accesses For Spatial Computation},
  author = {Budiu, Mihai and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 1st International ACM/IEEE Symposium
     on Code Generation and Optimization (CGO 03)},
  year = {2003},
  address = {San Francisco, CA},
  month = {Mar},
  pages = {216-227},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/budiu-cgo03.pdf},
  keywords = {Spatial Computing, Reconfigurable
     Computing,Phoenix,Compilers:Memory Optimizations},
}

@inproceedings{budiu-fpl02,
  author = {Budiu, Mihai and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  title = {Compiling Application-Specific Hardware},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on
     Field Programmable Logic and Applications},
  year = {2002},
  address = {Montpellier (La Grande-Motte), France},
  month = {Sep},
  pages = {853--863},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/budiu-fpl02.pdf},
  abstract = {In this paper we describe ASH, an architectural
     framework for implementing Application-Specific Hardware. ASH is
     based on automatic hardware synthesis from high-level languages.
     The generated circuits use only localized computation structures;
     in consequence, we expect these circuits to be fast, to use
     little power and to scale well with program complexity. \par We
     present in detail CASH, a scalable compiler framework for ASH,
     which generates hardware from programs written in C. Our compiler
     exploits instruction level parallelism by using aggressive
     speculation and dynamic scheduling. Based on this compilation
     scheme, we evaluate the computational resources necessary for
     implementing complex integer-based programs, and we suggest
     architectural features that would support the ASH framework.},
  keywords = {Spatial Computing,Phoenix,Compilers:CASH},
}

@inproceedings{venkataramani-fpl02,
  title = {Factors Influencing the Performance of a CPU-RFU Hybrid
     Architecture},
  author = {Venkataramani, Girish and Sudhir, Suraj and Budiu, Mihai
     and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on
     Field Programmable Logic and Applications (FPL)},
  year = {2002},
  address = {Montpellier (La Grande-Motte), France},
  month = {Sep},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/venkataramani-fpl02.pdf},
  abstract = {Closely coupling a reconfigurable fabric with a
     conventional processor has been shown to successfully improve the
     system performance. However, today s superscalar pro-cessors are
     both complex and adept at extracting Instruction Level
     Parallelism (ILP), which introduces many complex issues to the
     design of a hybrid CPU-RFU system. This paper examines the design
     of a superscalar processor augmented with a closely-coupled
     recon-figurable fabric. It identifies architectural and compiler
     issues that affect the performance of the overall system.
     Previous efforts at combining a processor core with a
     reconfigurable fabric are examined in the light of these issues.
     We also present simulation results that emphasize the impact of
     these factors.},
  pages = {955-965},
  isbn = {3-540-44108-5},
  publisher = {Springer-Verlag},
  keywords = {Spatial Computing,Reconfigurable Computing,Phoenix},
}

@techreport{budiu-tr02,
  author = {Budiu, Mihai and Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  title = {Pegasus: An Efficient Intermediate Representation},
  institution = {Carnegie Mellon University},
  year = {2002},
  number = {CMU-CS-02-107},
  month = {May},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/budiu-tr02.pdf},
  pages = {20},
  abstract = {We present Pegasus, a compact and expressive
     intermediate representation for imperative languages. The
     representation is suitable for target architectures supporting
     predicated execution and aggressive speculation. In Pegasus
     information about the global dataflow of the program is encoded
     in local structures, enabling compact and efficient algorithms
     for program optimizations. As a proof of the versatility of
     Pegasus, we have used it in a compiler translating C programs to
     hardware implementations.},
  keywords = {Spatial Computing, Reconfigurable Computing,Phoenix},
}

@inproceedings{goldstein-isca01,
  author = {Goldstein, Seth Copen and Budiu, Mihai},
  title = {{NanoFabrics}: Spatial Computing Using Molecular
     Electronics},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 28th International Symposium on
     Computer Architecture (ISCA)},
  month = {Jul},
  address = {{G\"{o}teborg, Sweden}},
  year = {2001},
  pages = {178--189},
  abstract = {The continuation of the remarkable exponential increases
     in processing power over the recent past faces imminent
     challenges due in part to the physics of deep-submicron CMOS
     devices and the costs of both chip masks and future fabrication
     plants. A promising solution to these problems is offered by an
     alternative to CMOS-based computing, chemically assembled
     electronic nanotechnology (CAEN). In this paper we outline how
     CAEN based computing can become a reality. We briefly describe
     recent work in CAEN and how CAEN will affect computer
     architecture. We show how the inherently reconfigurable natures
     of CAEN devices can be exploited to provide high-density chips
     with defect tolerance which will significantly reduce the cost of
     manufacturing. After developing the basic building blocks of a
     CAEN based computing devices we present some preliminary results
     which indicate that CAEN based computing devices can meet or
     exceed the performance of CMOS based devices.},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/goldstein-isca01.pdf},
  keywords = {Spatial Computing, Reconfigurable Computing,Phoenix,
     Electronic Nanotechnology},
}

@inproceedings{budiu-europar00,
  title = {{BitValue} Inference: Detecting and Exploiting Narrow
     Bitwidth Computations},
  author = {Budiu, Mihai and Sakr, Majd and Walker, Kevin and
     Goldstein, Seth Copen},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2000 Europar Conference},
  year = {2000},
  volume = {1900},
  pages = {969--979},
  month = {Aug},
  issn = {0302-9743},
  series = {Lecture Notes in Computer Science},
  publisher = {Springer Verlag},
  address = {Munich, Germany},
  url = {http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth/papers/budiu-europar00.pdf},
  also = {CMU CS Technical Report, CMU-CS-00-141, October 2000.},
  abstract = {We present a compiler algorithm called BitValue, which
     can discover both unused and constant bits in dusty-deck C
     programs. BitValue uses forward and backward dataflow analyses,
     generalizing constant-folding and dead-code detection at the
     bit-level. This algorithm enables compiler optimizations which
     target special processor architectures for computing on
     non-standard bitwidths. Using this algorithm we show that up to
     31\% of the computed bytes are thrown away (for programs from
     SpecINT95 and Mediabench). A compiler for reconfigurable hardware
     uses this algorithm to achieve substantial reductions (up to
     20-fold) in the size of the synthesized circuits.},
  keywords = {Spatial Computing,Reconfigurable
     Computing,Phoenix,PipeRench,CAD},
}